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Figure 1. Changes in a) plant species, b) insect family, and c) soil microbial OTU richness with relative invasion cover of B. arvensis and B. tectorum in Montana (MT) and Wyoming (WY). P-values and marginal R2 values for significant (solid lines) or marginally significant (dashed line) effects of invasion on richness are shown according to results from mixed-model ANOVAs (Appendix S1: Table S1). One outlier was removed from Montana microbial data to meet model assumptions.
Figure 2. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) of a) plant, b) insect, and c) soil microbial community compositions in relation to invasion by B. arvensis and B. tectorum in Montana (MT) and Wyoming (WY). P-values for significant changes in composition are shown according to the PERMANOVA results (Appendix S1: Table S2). Invasion levels connected with vertical black lines are not significantly different based on pairwise comparisons (pairwise PERMANOVA).
Figure 3. Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) of a) plant, b) insect, and c) soil microbial functional group compositions in relation to invasion by B. arvensis and B. tectorum in Montana (MT) and Wyoming (WY). P-values for significant changes in functional groups are shown according to the PERMANOVA results (Appendix S1: Table S3). Invasion levels connected with vertical black lines are not significantly different based on pairwise comparisons (pairwise PERMANOVA).
Figure 4. Changes in a) total insect biomass and b) total plant herbivory with relative invasion cover of B. arvensis in Montana (MT) in 2021 and 2022. Significant differences in plant herbivory from mixed-model ANOVAs (Appendix S1: Table S6) are indicated by asterisks, where * means p < 0.1, ** means p < 0.05, and *** means p < 0.001.